Space Atlas

The original sources

471 documents from 80 publishers. If you would rather read the originals than our assembly of them, start here. Each story’s list is in the order of its footnotes.

Chapter 1How it began

The birth of NASA 8

  1. 165 Years Ago: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 Creates NASANASA · John Uri · July 2023Text adapted
  2. 2Sputnik and the Origins of the Space AgeNASA History Office · Roger D. LauniusText adapted
  3. 3A Brief History of NASANASA History Office · Stephen J. Garber and Roger D. Launius · 1998Text adapted
  4. 4Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  5. 5National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (Unamended)NASA History Office · July 29, 1958Quoted
  6. 6Explorer 1NASA ScienceText adapted
  7. 7The Decision to Go to the Moon: President John F. Kennedy’s May 25, 1961 Speech before a Joint Session of CongressNASA History OfficeText adapted
  8. 8This Week in NASA History: ABMA Transferred to NASA, Creating Marshall Center—July 1, 1960NASAFigures

Mercury & Gemini 13

  1. 1In the Beginning: Project MercuryNASAText adapted
  2. 2Project MercuryNASAText adapted
  3. 3Mercury Crewed Flights SummaryNASAFigures
  4. 4This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (NASA SP-4201)NASA · Loyd S. Swenson Jr., James M. Grimwood and Charles C. Alexander · 1966Text adapted
  5. 5Project Gemini: Apollo’s Training GroundNASAText adapted
  6. 6Gemini Pioneered the Technology Driving Today’s ExplorationNASA Kennedy Space Center · Bob GranathText adapted
  7. 755 Years Ago: Gemini VIII, the First Docking in SpaceNASA · John Uri · March 2021Text adapted
  8. 8Gemini IX and the Angry AlligatorNASA · John UriText adapted
  9. 955 Years Ago: Gemini XII Closes Out a Successful Program, Paves the Way for ApolloNASA · John Uri · November 2021Text adapted
  10. 10On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (NASA SP-4203)NASA · Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood · 1977Text adapted
  11. 1155 Years Ago: Gemini X Soars to New HeightsNASA · John Uri · July 2021Figures
  12. 12Gemini XINASAFigures
  13. 13Project Mercury Overview: SummaryNASA · November 2006Text adapted

Apollo 8

  1. 1Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis (Monographs in Aerospace History 3)NASA History Office · Roger D. Launius · 1994; reprinted 2004Text adapted
  2. 2A Brief History of NASANASA History Office · Stephen J. Garber and Roger D. Launius · 1998Text adapted
  3. 3The Apollo ProgramNASAText adapted
  4. 4Apollo’s Lunar Module Bridged Technological Leap to the MoonNASA Kennedy Space Center · Bob GranathText adapted
  5. 555 Years Ago: The Apollo 1 Fire and its AftermathNASA · John Uri · February 2022Text adapted
  6. 6Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft (NASA SP-4205)NASA · Courtney G. Brooks, James M. Grimwood and Loyd S. Swenson Jr. · 1979Text adapted
  7. 7Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  8. 8NASA’s Artemis II Crew Eclipses Record for Farthest Human SpaceflightNASA · April 6, 2026Figures

The Space Shuttle 15

  1. 1Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  2. 2The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA’s Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle (NASA SP-4221)NASA · T. A. Heppenheimer · 1999Text adapted
  3. 3The Flight of STS-1NASA History Office · Stephen J. Garber · 2010Text adapted
  4. 4The Space Shuttle (reference)NASAText adapted
  5. 5Space ShuttleNASAText adapted
  6. 6Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, vol. 1, ch. IV: The Cause of the AccidentPresidential Commission (Rogers Commission) · June 6, 1986Text adapted
  7. 7Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, vol. 1, ch. V: The Contributing Cause of the AccidentPresidential Commission (Rogers Commission) · June 6, 1986Text adapted
  8. 8Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, vol. 1, ch. VI: An Accident Rooted in HistoryPresidential Commission (Rogers Commission) · June 6, 1986Text adapted
  9. 9Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, vol. 1, ch. VIII: Pressures on the SystemPresidential Commission (Rogers Commission) · June 6, 1986Text adapted
  10. 10Columbia Accident Investigation Board SynopsisNASA History Office · Jennifer Troxell · January 2004Text adapted
  11. 1120 Years Ago: Remembering Columbia and Her CrewNASA · John Uri · February 2023Text adapted
  12. 12STS-135: The Final VoyageNASA · Heather Deiss · July 2011Text adapted
  13. 13A Brief History of NASANASA History Office · Stephen J. Garber and Roger D. Launius · 1998Text adapted
  14. 14Flights of Atlantis (OV-104) (NASA Facts FS-2011-06-135-KSC)NASA Kennedy Space Center · 2011Figures
  15. 15Space Shuttle Missions (mission index)NASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Figures

Chapter 2Getting to orbit

How rockets reach orbit 15

  1. 1Flight to OrbitNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Rocket ThrustNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3Specific ImpulseNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Ideal Rocket EquationNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5Mass RatiosNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6Booster Staging InteractiveNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Structural SystemNASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner’s Guide to Aeronautics · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8Rockets: Educator’s Guide with Activities in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (MSFC-12-2025-SLS-5576)NASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 14: Launch (including ‘Perspective: Launch Mass’ by Kevin Peter Hand, from Alien Oceans, Princeton University Press, 2020)NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory · Accessed October 1, 2026Quoted
  10. 10NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11Space Launch System (reference guide)NASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Main Engine Cuts Off, Falcon 9 First Stage Separates (SpaceX CRS-24 launch blog)NASA · December 21, 2021Text adapted
  13. 13As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on MoonNASA · April 16, 2021Text adapted
  14. 14Blue Origin launches third New Glenn rocket, but payload ends up in wrong orbitSpaceflight Now · April 20, 2026Summarized
  15. 15VulcanUnited Launch Alliance · Accessed October 1, 2026Summarized

Falcon 9 16

  1. 1Commercial Orbital Transportation Services: A New Era in Spaceflight (NASA/SP-2014-617)NASA · Rebecca Hackler, with Rebecca Wright · February 2014Text adapted
  2. 2NASA Independent Review Team: SpaceX CRS-7 Accident Investigation Report (Public Summary)NASA · March 12, 2018Text adapted
  3. 3Audit of Commercial Resupply Services to the International Space Station (IG-18-016)NASA Office of Inspector General · April 26, 2018Text adapted
  4. 4NASA Commercial Crew Program: Plan Needed to Ensure Uninterrupted Access to the International Space Station (GAO-18-476)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 2018Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Certifies First Commercial Human Spaceflight SystemNASA · November 10, 2020Text adapted
  6. 6NASA’s Commercial Crew Program Faces Schedule Delays, Cost Increases, and Safety ChallengesNASA Office of Inspector General · June 30, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7NASA Awards SpaceX Three Crew Flights to Space StationNASA · September 18, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launches to International Space StationNASA · October 1, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9General Catalog of Artificial Space Objects: launch listJonathan McDowell · Updated September 28, 2026; counts by Space AtlasFigures
  10. 10NASA Set to Launch Second Commercial Crew Rotation to the International Space Station Live ShotsNASA Scientific Visualization Studio · April 19, 2021Text adapted
  11. 11Falcon 9SpaceX · Accessed October 1, 2026Summarized
  12. 12SpaceX launches Starlink mission on a Falcon booster’s record-breaking 37th flightSpaceflight Now · August 24, 2026Summarized
  13. 13Main Engine Cuts Off, Falcon 9 First Stage Separates (SpaceX CRS-24 launch blog)NASA · December 21, 2021Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Historic Test Flight of SpaceX Crew DragonNASA · May 30, 2020Text adapted
  15. 15Falcon 9 Landing Following NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launch (image release)NASA · October 1, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16MissionSpaceX · Accessed October 1, 2026Summarized

Starship 17

  1. 1NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on MoonNASA · April 16, 2021Text adapted
  4. 4SpaceX Completes Engine Tests for NASA’s Artemis III Moon LanderNASA Artemis Blog · September 14, 2023Text adapted
  5. 5SpaceX Starship Hot Staging — From Concept to FlightNASA Advanced Supercomputing Division · Jason Liu and Brian Richardson, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center · November 2024Text adapted
  6. 6How NASA’s Artemis III Lander Test Will Pave Way for Moon LandingsNASA · July 15, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7SpaceX Starship Super Heavy Project at the Boca Chica Launch Site (project, history and vehicle pages)Federal Aviation Administration · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8General Catalog of Artificial Space Objects: launch listJonathan McDowell · Updated September 28, 2026Figures
  9. 9StarshipSpaceX · Accessed October 1, 2026Summarized
  10. 10Super Heavy-Starship rocket chalks up mostly successful test flightSpaceflight Now · July 25, 2026Summarized
  11. 11Starship returns to Earth; rocket splashes down north of Hawaii after three-hour flightSpaceflight Now · September 28, 2026Summarized
  12. 12SpaceX launches Starship into orbit for 1st time—largest rocket ever built notches key milestone on dramatic Flight 14 testSpace.com · September 28, 2026Summarized
  13. 13Starship Achieves Orbit for the First TimeSpacePolicyOnline · September 28, 2026Quoted
  14. 14NASA Adds Mission to Artemis Lunar Program, Updates ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NASA, SpaceX Advance Wind Tunnel Tests at NASA Ames (image release)NASA · July 31, 2025Text adapted
  16. 16NASA Marshall Thermal Engineering Lab Provides Key Insight to Human Landing System (image release)NASA · November 22, 2024Text adapted
  17. 17Starship Flight 6 seen from the International Space Station (iss072e220043)NASA · Don Pettit · November 19, 2024Figures

Space Launch System 10

  1. 1National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-267), Section 302U.S. Congress · October 11, 2010Text adapted
  2. 2NASA’s Management of Space Launch System Program Costs and Contracts (IG-20-012)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2020Text adapted
  3. 3NASA’s Management of the Artemis Missions (IG-22-003)NASA Office of Inspector General · November 15, 2021Text adapted
  4. 4NASA’s Management of the Space Launch System Booster and Engine Contracts (IG-23-015)NASA Office of Inspector General · May 25, 2023Text adapted
  5. 5NASA’s Management of Space Launch System Block 1B Development (IG-24-015)NASA Office of Inspector General · August 8, 2024Text adapted
  6. 6NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Space Launch System (reference guide)NASA · Updated March 24, 2026; accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8NASA Adds Mission to Artemis Lunar Program, Updates ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Welcomes Record-Setting Artemis II Moonfarers Back to EarthNASA · April 10, 2026; updated May 7, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10Artemis III Core Stage Arrival at VAB (image release)NASA · April 28, 2026Text adapted

New Glenn & Vulcan 20

  1. 1VulcanUnited Launch Alliance · Accessed October 1, 2026Summarized
  2. 2Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 14: LaunchNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3General Catalog of Artificial Space Objects: launch listJonathan McDowell · Updated September 28, 2026Figures
  4. 4CLPS Peregrine Mission One (PM-1) Astrobotic/ULA Liftoff (image release)NASA · January 8, 2024Text adapted
  5. 5Vulcan suffers solid rocket booster problem during USSF-87 launchSpaceflight Now · February 12, 2026Summarized
  6. 6Space Force won’t launch Vulcan rockets until booster problem solved (Orlando Sentinel)Phys.org · March 3, 2026Quoted
  7. 7Space Force weighs Vulcan flights without solid boostersSpaceNews · April 19, 2026Summarized
  8. 8ULA confirms successful solid rocket booster test as Vulcan anomaly investigation continuesSpaceflight Now · May 14, 2026Summarized
  9. 9NASA, Blue Origin Launch Two Spacecraft to Study Mars, Solar WindNASA · November 13, 2025Text adapted
  10. 10Blue Origin launches third New Glenn rocket, but payload ends up in wrong orbitSpaceflight Now · April 20, 2026Quoted
  11. 11Blue Origin’s New Glenn rocket explodes during prelaunch testing at Cape CanaveralSpaceflight Now · May 29, 2026Quoted
  12. 12Blue Origin identifies engine issue behind New Glenn explosionSpaceflight Now · August 6, 2026Quoted
  13. 13Administrator Isaacman Visits Blue Origin (image releases)NASA · May 29 and August 14, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Adds Blue Origin New Glenn 9×4 to Launch Services ContractNASA · September 29, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15U.S. Space Force awards $13.7 billion in new national security launch contracts to Blue Origin, SpaceX and ULASpaceflight Now · April 5, 2025Summarized
  16. 16NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17How NASA’s Artemis III Lander Test Will Pave Way for Moon LandingsNASA · July 15, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19NASA Selects Blue Origin as Second Artemis Lunar Lander ProviderNASA · May 19, 2023Figures
  20. 20Space Force to review Vulcan commercial flights before clearing military missionsSpaceNews · September 16, 2026Summarized

Spaceports 13

  1. 1Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations (NASA SP-4204)NASA History Office · Charles D. Benson and William Barnaby Faherty · 1978Text adapted
  2. 2Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 14: LaunchNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3The CrawlersNASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Launch Complex 39B (fact sheet FS-2021-08-726-KSC)NASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Signs Agreement with SpaceX for Use of Historic Launch PadNASA · April 14, 2014Text adapted
  6. 6NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Historic Test Flight of SpaceX Crew DragonNASA · May 30, 2020Text adapted
  7. 7SpaceX Starship Super Heavy Project at the Boca Chica Launch Site (project, history and operations pages)Federal Aviation Administration · Accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8Commercial Orbital Transportation Services: A New Era in Spaceflight (NASA/SP-2014-617)NASA · February 2014Text adapted
  9. 9General Catalog of Artificial Space Objects: launch listJonathan McDowell · Updated September 28, 2026; counts by Space AtlasFigures
  10. 10NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11Artemis II rollout and Vehicle Assembly Building (image releases)NASA · March 19–20, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Artemis III Crew Visits Launch Complex 39A (image release)NASA · September 3, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13Falcon 9 Landing Following NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launch (image release)NASA · October 1, 2026Text adapted

Chapter 3Living in orbit

ISS 15

  1. 1International Space Station (encyclopedia entry)NASA · Updated November 27, 2025Text adapted
  2. 2ISS20th: High-Flying ConstructionNASA History Office · John Uri · December 16, 2019Text adapted
  3. 3International Space Station Facts and FiguresNASA · Accessed October 1, 2026Figures
  4. 4The International Space Station Marks 25 Years of Continuous Human PresenceNASA · December 2, 2025Text adapted
  5. 5NASA’s Management of Risks to Sustaining ISS Operations through 2030 (IG-24-020)NASA Office of Inspector General · September 26, 2024Text adapted
  6. 6NASA Provides Update on Space Station LeakNASA · June 5, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Russia Agrees to ISS Operations, Seat-Swaps, Through 2030SpacePolicyOnline · July 16, 2026Summarized
  8. 8International Space Station Deorbit Analysis SummaryNASA · 2024Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Selects International Space Station US Deorbit VehicleNASA · June 26, 2024Text adapted
  10. 10United States Deorbit Vehicle (procurement summary)NASA Johnson Space Center Office of Procurement · 2025Text adapted
  11. 11NASA: ISS Deorbit Vehicle Will Cost $1.5 Billion, but It’s EssentialSpacePolicyOnline · July 18, 2024Summarized
  12. 12Low-Earth Orbit: NASA Faces Impending Decisions for Replacing International Space Station with Commercial Stations (GAO-26-107805)U.S. Government Accountability Office · June 17, 2026Summarized
  13. 13NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launches to International Space StationNASA · October 1, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · Updated April 29, 2026Figures
  15. 15NASA’s Management of Its Commercial Crew Program (IG-26-011)NASA Office of Inspector General · June 30, 2026Figures

Life in orbit 30

  1. 1NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launches to International Space Station (release 26-081)NASA · Lauren E. Low · October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Station Prepares to Welcome Crew-13 while Continuing Space ResearchNASA Space Station Blog · September 30, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3Advanced Health Research Begins Week as Station Awaits Crew-13 MissionNASA Space Station Blog · September 28, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Spacesuits, Exercise, and Cargo Ops Wrap Week Aboard StationNASA Space Station Blog · September 4, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5The International Space Station Marks 25 Years of Continuous Human PresenceNASA Johnson Space Center · Linda E. Grimm and Sumer Loggins · December 2, 2025Text adapted
  6. 6Top Things to Know about Space Station Crew HandoversNASA · Sarah A. Loff · April 29, 2021Text adapted
  7. 7Seven Ways Astronauts Improve Sleep May Help You Snooze Better on EarthNASA Space Station Research Integration Office · December 15, 2016Text adapted
  8. 8Food on the International Space StationNASA Johnson Space Center · John Uri · August 14, 2020Text adapted
  9. 9The Real Story About Astronaut Health Care in SpaceNASA Johnson Space Center · November 21, 2024Text adapted
  10. 10Counteracting Bone and Muscle Loss in MicrogravityNASA Space Station Research Integration Office · Andrea Lloyd · December 1, 2023Text adapted
  11. 11Risk of Reduced Cardiorespiratory and Musculoskeletal FitnessNASA Human Research Program · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12NASA Achieves Water Recovery Milestone on International Space StationNASA · Melissa L. Gaskill · June 20, 2023Text adapted
  13. 13Boldly Go! NASA’s New Space Toilet Offers More Comfort, Improved Efficiency for Deep Space MissionsNASA · September 17, 2020Text adapted
  14. 14Houston We Have a Podcast, Episode 144: Space HygieneNASA Johnson Space Center · recorded February 12, 2020Summarized
  15. 15Mental Well-Being in SpaceNASA · Melissa L. Gaskill · August 15, 2024Text adapted
  16. 16Growing Plants in SpaceNASA Kennedy Space Center · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17Microgravity Science Glovebox (MSG)NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA Technical Reports Server) · April 2024Text adapted
  18. 18Astronauts Complete Spacewalk for Solar Array ModificationsNASA Space Station Blog · August 6, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19NASA, ESA Astronauts Wrap Up Station SpacewalkNASA Space Station Blog · August 18, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20ESA, NASA Astronauts Complete Navigation and Science Spacewalk Outside StationNASA Space Station Blog · September 1, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21Expedition 75 is Go for Tuesday’s Navigation and Science Maintenance SpacewalkNASA Space Station Blog · August 31, 2026Text adapted
  22. 22Station Crew Cleans Up, Relaxes After Busy Month of SpacewalksNASA Space Station Blog · September 2, 2026Text adapted
  23. 23NASA Astronauts Ready for Thursday SpacewalkNASA Space Station Blog · August 5, 2026Text adapted
  24. 24NASA’s Acquisition of Next-Generation Spacesuit Services (IG-26-006)NASA Office of Inspector General · April 20, 2026Summarized
  25. 25Low-Earth Orbit: NASA Faces Impending Decisions for Replacing International Space Station with Commercial Stations (GAO-26-107805)U.S. Government Accountability Office · June 17, 2026Text adapted
  26. 26Fact Sheet: NASA Unveils Transformative Initiatives to Achieve America’s National Space Policy (Ignition)NASA · March 24, 2026Figures
  27. 27Week Ends With Soldering, Lunar Simulations, and Cargo Mission PrepsNASA Space Station Blog · September 18, 2026Text adapted
  28. 28Crew Biology Research, Spacecraft Cargo Jobs Kick Off Week on StationNASA Space Station Blog · September 21, 2026Text adapted
  29. 29Living and Working in Space (fact sheet)NASA · November 2006 (FS-2006-11-030-JSC)Text adapted
  30. 30NASA, ESA Spacewalkers Finish Installing High-Speed AntennaNASA Space Station Blog · August 25, 2026Text adapted

Commercial crew 13

  1. 1NASA’s Management of Its Commercial Crew Program (IG-26-011)NASA Office of Inspector General · June 30, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space StationNASA · September 16, 2014Text adapted
  3. 3NASA’s Management of Crew Transportation to the International Space Station (IG-20-005)NASA Office of Inspector General · November 14, 2019Figures
  4. 4NASA’s Commercial Crew Program: Update on Development and Certification Efforts (IG-16-028)NASA Office of Inspector General · September 1, 2016Figures
  5. 5Commercial Orbital Transportation Services: A New Era in Spaceflight (NASA SP-2014-617)NASA Johnson Space Center · Rebecca Hackler · 2014Text adapted
  6. 6NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Historic Test Flight of SpaceX Crew DragonNASA · May 30, 2020Text adapted
  7. 7The International Space Station Marks 25 Years of Continuous Human PresenceNASA · December 2, 2025Text adapted
  8. 8NASA Releases Report on Starliner Crewed Flight Test InvestigationNASA · February 19, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9NASA, Boeing Modify Commercial Crew ContractNASA · November 24, 2025Text adapted
  10. 10NASA, Boeing Share Update on Commercial Starliner Development PlansNASA · September 28, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11NASA plans unpiloted Starliner test flight at end of yearSpaceflight Now · September 29, 2026Quoted
  12. 12NASA Awards SpaceX Three Crew Flights to Space StationNASA · September 18, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launches to International Space StationNASA · October 1, 2026Text adapted

Commercial stations 34

  1. 1Low-Earth Orbit: NASA Faces Impending Decisions for Replacing International Space Station with Commercial Stations (GAO-26-107805)U.S. Government Accountability Office · June 17, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA Selects First Commercial Destination Module for International Space StationNASA · January 27, 2020 (editor’s note February 28, 2020)Text adapted
  3. 3NASA Selects Companies to Develop Commercial Destinations in SpaceNASA · December 2, 2021Text adapted
  4. 4NASA Partners Combine Efforts for Low Earth Orbit Commercial StationNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · October 4, 2023Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Adjusts Agreements to Benefit Commercial Station DevelopmentNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · January 5, 2024Text adapted
  6. 6NASA, Axiom Space Change Assembly Order of Commercial Space StationNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · December 19, 2024Text adapted
  7. 7Axiom Space Adjusts Space Station PlansPayload · December 18, 2024Summarized
  8. 8Q&A: Axiom’s Peggy Whitson on space station assemblyAerospace America · January 12, 2026Summarized
  9. 9NASA Sees Key Progress on Starlab Commercial Space StationNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · July 16, 2025Text adapted
  10. 10Starlab Completes NASA Commercial Critical Design ReviewStarlab Space · February 23, 2026Summarized
  11. 11NASA Supports Burst Test for Orbital Reef Commercial Space StationNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · July 25, 2024Text adapted
  12. 12NASA Sees Progress on Blue Origin’s Orbital Reef Design DevelopmentNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · April 16, 2025Text adapted
  13. 13NASA Helps with Progress on Vast’s Haven-1 Commercial Space StationNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · May 28, 2025Text adapted
  14. 14Vast Announces the Haven-1 and Vast-1 MissionsVast · May 10, 2023Summarized
  15. 15Vast Secures Agreement with NASA to Test Haven-1 Flight Vehicle at Armstrong Test FacilityVast · April 3, 2025Summarized
  16. 16Vast Advances Haven-1 Into Integration PhaseVast · January 20, 2026Summarized
  17. 17Vast Secures $500M in Funding to Accelerate Production of Haven Space StationsVast · March 5, 2026Summarized
  18. 18Vast Selected by NASA for Sixth Private Astronaut Mission to International Space StationVast · February 12, 2026Summarized
  19. 19Directive on Revised Commercial Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Destinations (CLD) Phase 2 Acquisition StrategyNASA, Office of the Administrator · August 4, 2025Text adapted
  20. 20NASA Seeks Industry Input on Next Phase of Commercial Space StationsNASA Commercial Low Earth Orbit Development Program · September 5, 2025Text adapted
  21. 21Fact Sheet: NASA Unveils Transformative Initiatives to Achieve America’s National Space Policy (Ignition)NASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  22. 22NASA Changes Course on Commercial Space StationsCenter for Strategic and International Studies · Clayton Swope · May 27, 2026Quoted
  23. 23NASA Agrees with Industry, Keep CLD Program As IsSpacePolicyOnline · June 1, 2026Summarized
  24. 24NASA Seeks Industry Input on Second Phase of Commercial Space StationsNASA · Jennifer M. Dooren · July 6, 2026Text adapted
  25. 25Commercial Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Destination Contract (CLDC): acquisition page and milestone scheduleNASA Johnson Space Center Procurement · updated September 21, 2026; accessed October 1, 2026Figures
  26. 26NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · April 29, 2026Figures
  27. 27NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: A Fact Sheet (R43419, FY2021 request)Congressional Research Service · February 10, 2020Figures
  28. 28NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: A Fact Sheet (R43419, FY2022 request)Congressional Research Service · July 2, 2021Figures
  29. 29NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: A Fact Sheet (R43419, FY2024 and FY2025 request)Congressional Research Service · March 12, 2024Figures
  30. 30NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: Fact Sheet (R43419, FY2025 request)Congressional Research Service · August 7, 2024Figures
  31. 31House Appropriators Reject Deep Cuts to NASA in FY2027SpacePolicyOnline · May 13, 2026Summarized
  32. 32NASA’s Management of Risks to Sustaining ISS Operations through 2030 (IG-24-020)NASA Office of Inspector General · September 26, 2024Text adapted
  33. 33Proposed fiscal 2027 funding could support two commercial space stations, developers sayAerospace America · May 20, 2026Summarized
  34. 34NASA Provides Update on Space Station LeakNASA · June 5, 2026Figures

Chapter 4Serving Earth

Orbits 18

  1. 1Catalog of Earth Satellite OrbitsNASA Earth Observatory · Holli Riebeek · September 4, 2009 (updated November 14, 2025)Text adapted
  2. 2Station FactsNASAText adapted
  3. 3NASA’s SpaceX Crew-13 Launches to International Space Station (release 26-081)NASA · October 1, 2026Figures
  4. 4Landsat 9U.S. Geological SurveyFigures
  5. 5Aqua Satellite and MODIS SwathNASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio · September 20, 2009Text adapted
  6. 6Space SegmentGPS.govText adapted
  7. 7Geostationary Satellites (NOAA’s GOES-R Series)NOAA NESDISText adapted
  8. 8Why Do Satellites Have Different Orbits?NOAA NESDIS and NASA Space Place · August 26, 2025Text adapted
  9. 9Tracking and Data Relay SatellitesNASAText adapted
  10. 10What is a Lagrange Point?NASA · Neil J. Cornish, WMAP Science Team · March 27, 2018Text adapted
  11. 11DSCOVR: Deep Space Climate ObservatoryNOAA NESDISText adapted
  12. 12Space Weather Observations at L1 to Advance Readiness (SOLAR-1)NOAA NESDISText adapted
  13. 13SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory)NASAFigures
  14. 14IMAP Arrives at L1NASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio · February 2, 2026Figures
  15. 15Webb’s OrbitNASAText adapted
  16. 16Roman Launches and a New Era Begins (Official NASA Recap)NASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio · August 31, 2026Figures
  17. 17Frequently Asked QuestionsNASA Orbital Debris Program OfficeText adapted
  18. 18A reddish airglow blankets Earth beneath the Milky Way (iss073e0982696)NASA Image and Video Library · October 25, 2025Figures

GPS 24

  1. 1GPSGPS.gov (National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing)Text adapted
  2. 2Space SegmentGPS.govText adapted
  3. 3U.S. Space Force delivers final GPS III to orbit, advancing its most resilient constellation for military, civil capabilitiesU.S. Space Force, Space Systems Command · Maj. Brittany Curry and James Spellman · April 21, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Satellite Navigation – GPS – How It WorksFederal Aviation AdministrationText adapted
  5. 5The Global Positioning System (Global Positioning Tutorial)NOAA National Ocean ServiceText adapted
  6. 6GPS and Telling TimeGPS.govText adapted
  7. 7GPS Timing and Precision InstrumentsGPS.govText adapted
  8. 8GPS AccuracyGPS.govText adapted
  9. 9Control SegmentGPS.govText adapted
  10. 10Global Positioning System (fact sheet)U.S. Space Force · October 2020Figures
  11. 11GPSNASA Space Communications and Navigation · Catherine G. Manning · September 25, 2023Text adapted
  12. 12New Civil SignalsGPS.govText adapted
  13. 13GPS ModernizationGPS.govText adapted
  14. 14GPS: Actions Needed to Address Ground System Development Problems and User Equipment Production Readiness (GAO-15-657)U.S. Government Accountability Office · September 2015Text adapted
  15. 15Global Positioning System: Better Planning and Coordination Needed to Improve Prospects for Fielding Modernized Capability (GAO-18-74)U.S. Government Accountability Office · December 2017Text adapted
  16. 16GPS Modernization: Delays Continue in Delivering More Secure Capability for the Warfighter (GAO-24-106841)U.S. Government Accountability Office · September 9, 2024Figures
  17. 17Weapon Systems Annual Assessment: DOD Leaders Should Ensure That Newer Programs Are Structured for Speed and Innovation (GAO-25-107569): GPS IIIF and OCXU.S. Government Accountability Office · June 11, 2025Text adapted
  18. 18Weapon Systems Annual Assessment: Requiring Mature Technologies Could Enable Shift to Rapid Delivery (GAO-26-108457): GPS IIIF and OCXU.S. Government Accountability Office · July 2, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19Space Force kills OCX GPS ground control system, citing ‘insurmountable’ challengesBreaking Defense · April 20, 2026Summarized
  20. 20Weapon Systems Annual Assessment: Updated Program Oversight Approach Needed (GAO-21-222): GPS III Follow-OnU.S. Government Accountability Office · June 8, 2021Figures
  21. 21Program Acquisition Cost by Weapon System, FY2020–FY2027 budget requests: Global Positioning System EnterpriseOffice of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller) · 2019–2026Figures
  22. 22Program FundingGPS.govText adapted
  23. 23What Can GPS Do?GPS.govText adapted
  24. 24DOC Study on Economic Benefits of GPSOffice of Space Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce · June 2019Text adapted

Weather satellites 23

  1. 1How NOAA Satellites Help Us Stay Ahead of Severe Weather SeasonNOAA NESDIS · March 12, 2025Text adapted
  2. 2NOAA’s GOES-R Series (Geostationary Satellites)NOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3Celebrating 50 Years of GOESNOAA NESDIS · 2025Text adapted
  4. 4Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI)NOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5Hurricane Milton Eyes FloridaNOAA NESDIS · October 10, 2024Text adapted
  6. 6Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM)NOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7NASA, SpaceX Launch NOAA’s Latest Weather SatelliteNASA · June 25, 2024Text adapted
  8. 8NOAA’s GOES-19 Now Operational as GOES East, Providing Critical New Data to ForecastersNOAA NESDIS · April 7, 2025Text adapted
  9. 9Budget Estimates, Fiscal Year 2027: Congressional Justification (NESDIS chapters)NOAA · April 2026Figures
  10. 10Joint Polar Satellite SystemNOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11NASA Awards Launch Services Contract for NOAA’s JPSS-4 MissionNASA · July 22, 2024Text adapted
  12. 12Hurricane Beryl Brings Massive Power Outages to East TexasNOAA NESDIS · July 15, 2024Text adapted
  13. 13Hurricane Milton (GOES-16, NOAA-20 and NOAA-21 imagery)CSU/CIRA and NOAA, CIRA Satellite Library · October 2024Figures
  14. 14NOAA’s SOLAR-1 enters new era of space weather monitoringNOAA · June 10, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NOAA satellites helped rescue 300 people in 2025NOAA · March 3, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16NOAA’s Geostationary Extended Observations (GeoXO) Satellite Program and Issues for Congress (R49026)Congressional Research Service · July 10, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17Near Earth Orbit Network (NEON)NOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18NASA Selects Launch Provider for New NOAA Environmental SatelliteNASA · September 23, 2024Text adapted
  19. 19NOAA Announces New Awards totaling $67M to Purchase Operational Commercial Data to Enhance Weather Forecasts and Space Weather MonitoringNOAA NESDIS · September 21, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) FY2027 Budget Request and Appropriations (IF13275)Congressional Research Service · July 28, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21Hearing charter: A Review of the President’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget Request for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationHouse Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Subcommittee on Environment · April 28, 2026Figures
  22. 22Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2027 (H. Rept. 119-652)House Committee on Appropriations · May 15, 2026Figures
  23. 23House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized

Landsat 25

  1. 1LandsatNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Mission Success! Celebrating Landsat 9’s Five-Year Design Life MilestoneNASA · Sean Keefe · September 29, 2026Text adapted
  3. 350+ years of Landsat: Las VegasNASA Scientific Visualization Studio · April 16, 2024Text adapted
  4. 4How Early Astronaut Photographs Inspired the Landsat ProgramNASA · Madeleine Gregory · September 26, 2025Text adapted
  5. 5Landsat 1NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6Open DataNASA Landsat Science · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Landsat Missions (with the Landsat 2, 3, 4 and 8 mission pages)USGS · accessed October 1, 2026Figures
  8. 8Landsat 5NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9Landsat 6USGS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10A Final Farewell to Landsat 7USGS · June 4, 2025Text adapted
  11. 11Landsat 9NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Landsat, What’s Next? (IN12281)Congressional Research Service · June 16, 2025Text adapted
  13. 13Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program (R46560)Congressional Research Service · November 4, 2021Figures
  14. 14A Landsat Milestone: One Hundred Million DownloadsUSGS EROS Center · March 11, 2020Text adapted
  15. 15Free, Open Landsat Data Unleashed the Power of Remote Sensing a Decade AgoUSGS EROS Center · April 17, 2018Text adapted
  16. 16Opening Landsat Archive Helped Realize Its True ValueUSGS EROS Center · April 20, 2023Text adapted
  17. 17Budget Justifications and Performance Information, Fiscal Year 2027: U.S. Geological SurveyU.S. Department of the Interior · April 2026Text adapted
  18. 18Mount Saint Helens RecoveryNASA Scientific Visualization Studio · April 28, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19Landsat 10USGS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20Released: NASA Goddard Issues Draft Request for Proposal for the Landsat 10 SpacecraftNASA · May 27, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21NASA Releases Landsat 10 Spacecraft Request for ProposalNASA · July 17, 2026Text adapted
  22. 22The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): FY2027 Budget Request (IF13205)Congressional Research Service · April 16, 2026Text adapted
  23. 23Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2027 (H. Rept. 119-652)House Committee on Appropriations · May 15, 2026Quoted
  24. 24House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized
  25. 25Devastation and Recovery of Mt. St. HelensNASA Scientific Visualization Studio · 2017Text adapted

Chapter 5Return to the Moon

The Artemis plan 29

  1. 1NASA Administrator Statement on Return to Moon in Next Five YearsNASA · March 26, 2019Text adapted
  2. 2NASA’s Lunar Exploration Program Overview (the Artemis Plan)NASA · September 2020Text adapted
  3. 3NASA’s Management of the Artemis Missions, IG-22-003NASA Office of Inspector General · November 15, 2021Text adapted
  4. 4NASA Outlines Challenges, Progress for Artemis Moon MissionsNASA · November 9, 2021Text adapted
  5. 5As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on MoonNASA · April 16, 2021Figures
  6. 6NASA Selects Blue Origin as Second Artemis Lunar Lander ProviderNASA · May 19, 2023Figures
  7. 7NASA Shares Progress Toward Early Artemis Moon Missions with CrewNASA · January 9, 2024Text adapted
  8. 8NASA Shares Orion Heat Shield Findings, Updates Artemis Moon MissionsNASA · December 5, 2024Text adapted
  9. 9NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts, IG-26-004NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10NASA Adds Mission to Artemis Lunar Program, Updates ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11NASA Strengthens Artemis: Adds Mission, Refines Overall ArchitectureNASA · March 3, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12NASA Charts More Reliable Course for America’s Return to Lunar Surface (Going Back to the Moon fact sheet)NASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13NASA Unveils Initiatives to Achieve America’s National Space PolicyNASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14IgnitionNASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NASA outlines ambitious $20 billion plan for moon baseSpaceflight Now · March 25, 2026Summarized
  16. 16Spacesuit Development Delays Could Impact Artemis Timeline and ISS OperationsNASA Office of Inspector General · April 20, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17Artemis IVNASA · accessed September 30, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18Artemis II Press KitNASA · January 16, 2026 (updated April 1, 2026)Text adapted
  19. 19NASA Marches Toward Artemis III Mission in 2027, Names Crew MembersNASA · June 9, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20How NASA’s Artemis III Lander Test Will Pave Way for Moon LandingsNASA · Corinne Beckinger · July 15, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21NASA: Assessments of Major Projects, GAO-26-108556U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  22. 22NASA Joins Artemis III Orion Modules; Rocket Hardware UpdateNASA · August 5, 2026Text adapted
  23. 23NASA Starts Artemis III Engine Install; Boosters, Crew Training AdvanceNASA · August 27, 2026Text adapted
  24. 24NASA Provides Updates on Moon Base Cargo Landers, Tech DemonstrationsNASA · August 4, 2026Text adapted
  25. 25“Lengthy Note” From Jared Isaacman To NASA (the Administrator’s memo of September 20, 2026)NASA Watch · September 21, 2026Quoted
  26. 26Starship reaches orbit on 14th test flightAstronomy · September 30, 2026Summarized
  27. 27NASA Welcomes Record-Setting Artemis II Moonfarers Back to EarthNASA · April 10, 2026 (updated May 7, 2026)Text adapted
  28. 28Returning to the Moon (presentation by Lori Glaze at Ignition)NASA · March 26, 2026Figures
  29. 29Building the Moon Base (Ignition presentation)NASA · March 2026Figures

Artemis II 24

  1. 1NASA Welcomes Record-Setting Artemis II Moonfarers Back to EarthNASA · April 10, 2026 (updated May 7, 2026)Text adapted
  2. 2Artemis II Press KitNASA · January 16, 2026 (updated April 1, 2026)Text adapted
  3. 3Artemis II: NASA’s First Crewed Lunar Flyby in 50 Years (mission page)NASA · accessed September 30, 2026Figures
  4. 4NASA’s Artemis II Crew Eclipses Record for Farthest Human SpaceflightNASA · April 6, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5Artemis II Launch Day UpdatesNASA · April 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6Artemis II Flight Update: Proximity Operations Complete, Perigee Raise Burn Up NextNASA · April 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Artemis II Flight Update: Crew and Ground Teams Successfully Troubleshoot Orion’s ToiletNASA · April 2, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8Artemis II Flight Day 2: Orion Completes TLI Burn, Crew Begins Journey to the MoonNASA · April 2, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9Artemis II Flight Day 3: Crew Prepares for First Correction Burn, Readies to Receive Lunar Observation AssignmentNASA · April 3, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10Artemis II Flight Day 4: Crew Completes Manual Piloting DemonstrationNASA · April 4, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11Artemis II Flight Day 5: Crew Demos Suits, Readies for Lunar FlybyNASA · April 5, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Artemis II Flight Day 6: Lunar Flyby UpdatesNASA · April 6, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13Artemis II Flight Day 6: Crew Wraps Historic Lunar FlybyNASA · April 6, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14Artemis II Flight Day 7: Crew Makes Long-Distance Call, Begins ReturnNASA · April 7, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15Artemis II Flight Day 8: Crew Conducts Key Tests on Return to EarthNASA · April 8, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16Artemis II Flight Day 9: Crew Prepares to Come HomeNASA · April 9, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17Artemis II Flight Day 10: Live Re-Entry UpdatesNASA · April 10, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18NASA on Track for Future Missions with Initial Artemis II AssessmentsNASA · Lauren E. Low · April 20, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19FAQ: NASA’s Artemis Campaign and Recent UpdatesNASA · December 5, 2024Text adapted
  20. 20NASA Identifies Cause of Artemis I Orion Heat Shield Char LossNASA · Erika Peters · December 5, 2024Text adapted
  21. 21NASA Shares Progress Toward Early Artemis Moon Missions with CrewNASA · January 9, 2024Figures
  22. 22NASA Shares Orion Heat Shield Findings, Updates Artemis Moon MissionsNASA · December 5, 2024Figures
  23. 23NASA Adds Mission to Artemis Lunar Program, Updates ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Text adapted
  24. 24NASA Joins Artemis III Orion Modules; Rocket Hardware UpdateNASA · August 5, 2026Text adapted

Orion 21

  1. 1Orion Reference Guide (encyclopedic edition)NASA · updated September 8, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Orion Reference Guide (PDF)NASA · November 2022Text adapted
  3. 3Crew ModuleNASA · updated September 8, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4European Service ModuleNASA · updated September 18, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5Launch Abort SystemNASA · updated September 8, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6Crew SystemsNASA · updated September 8, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Life Encapsulated: Inside NASA’s Orion for Artemis II Moon MissionNASA · Erika Peters · September 29, 2023Text adapted
  8. 8NASA Announces Key Decision For Next Deep Space Transportation SystemNASA · May 24, 2011Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Outlines Challenges, Progress for Artemis Moon MissionsNASA · November 9, 2021Figures
  10. 10NASA’s Management of the Artemis Missions, IG-22-003NASA Office of Inspector General · November 15, 2021Figures
  11. 11NASA: Assessments of Major Projects, GAO-26-108556U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Progress Continues for Future Orion MissionsNASA · Erika Peters · October 20, 2022Text adapted
  13. 13NASA Identifies Cause of Artemis I Orion Heat Shield Char LossNASA · Erika Peters · December 5, 2024Text adapted
  14. 14FAQ: NASA’s Artemis Campaign and Recent UpdatesNASA · December 5, 2024Text adapted
  15. 15NASA on Track for Future Missions with Initial Artemis II AssessmentsNASA · Lauren E. Low · April 20, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16NASA Welcomes Record-Setting Artemis II Moonfarers Back to EarthNASA · April 10, 2026 (updated May 7, 2026)Text adapted
  17. 17Artemis II Launch Day UpdatesNASA · April 1, 2026Figures
  18. 18Artemis II Flight Update: Proximity Operations Complete, Perigee Raise Burn Up NextNASA · April 1, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19NASA’s Artemis III Moon Rocket Hardware Arrives, Artemis II Capsule Returns to KennedyNASA · April 28, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20NASA Joins Artemis III Orion Modules; Rocket Hardware UpdateNASA · August 5, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21Artemis II Press KitNASA · January 16, 2026 (updated April 1, 2026)Text adapted

Starship HLS 16

  1. 1NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA’s Management of the Artemis Missions (IG-22-003)NASA Office of Inspector General · November 15, 2021Text adapted
  3. 3As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on MoonNASA · April 16, 2021Text adapted
  4. 4NextSTEP-2 H: Human Landing System (procurement record)NASA · 2019–2022; accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Awards SpaceX Second Contract Option for Artemis Moon LandingNASA · November 15, 2022Text adapted
  6. 6NASA’s Human Landing System Program: Progress Toward Artemis III and Beyond (IAC-24.B3.1.11)NASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Lisa Watson-Morgan, Kent Chojnacki, Rene Ortega, Thomas K. Percy, John Crisler · October 2024Text adapted
  7. 7NASA Astronauts Test SpaceX Elevator Concept for Artemis Lunar LanderNASA · December 21, 2023Text adapted
  8. 8NASA, SpaceX Illustrate Key Moments of Artemis Lunar Lander MissionNASA · November 20, 2024Text adapted
  9. 9How NASA’s Artemis III Lander Test Will Pave Way for Moon LandingsNASA · July 15, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11NASA Shares Progress Toward Early Artemis Moon Missions with CrewNASA · January 9, 2024Figures
  12. 12NASA Adds Mission to Artemis Lunar Program, Updates ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13Returning to the Moon (Ignition presentation)NASA Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate · March 2026Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Artemis Mission Progresses with SpaceX Starship Test FlightNASA · March 14, 2024Text adapted
  15. 15SpaceX, Blue Origin share new lunar landing profilesFLYING, via Astronomy · Jack Daleo · November 4, 2025Quoted
  16. 16SpaceX launches Starship into orbit for 1st time—largest rocket ever built notches key milestone on dramatic Flight 14 testSpace.com · Mike Wall · September 28, 2026Summarized

Blue Moon 16

  1. 1NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA Selects Blue Origin as Second Artemis Lunar Lander ProviderNASA · May 19, 2023Text adapted
  3. 3NASA’s Human Landing System Program: Progress Toward Artemis III and Beyond (IAC-24.B3.1.11)NASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Lisa Watson-Morgan, Kent Chojnacki, Rene Ortega, Thomas K. Percy, John Crisler · October 2024Text adapted
  4. 4Blue Origin targets 2025 for its first moon landingCosmic Log · Alan Boyle · March 4, 2024Summarized
  5. 5Blue Origin Moon Lander Completes Testing at NASA Vacuum ChamberNASA Johnson Space Center · Victoria Segovia · May 4, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6NASA Provides Update on Moon Base Rovers, Landers, MissionsNASA · May 26, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Industry Moon Lander Training Cabin Lands at NASA for ArtemisNASA · Corinne Beckinger · May 7, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Provides Updates on Moon Base Cargo Landers, Tech DemonstrationsNASA · Ivry Artis · August 4, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10NASA Selects Blue Origin to Deliver VIPER Rover to Moon’s South PoleNASA · September 19, 2025Text adapted
  11. 11How NASA’s Artemis III Lander Test Will Pave Way for Moon LandingsNASA · Corinne Beckinger · July 15, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Returning to the Moon (Ignition presentation)NASA Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate · March 2026Text adapted
  13. 13Blue Origin launches third New Glenn rocket, but payload ends up in wrong orbitSpaceflight Now · April 20, 2026Summarized
  14. 14Blue Origin outlines return to flight logistics for its New Glenn rocketsSpaceflight Now · June 30, 2026Quoted
  15. 15Blue Origin identifies engine issue behind New Glenn explosionSpaceflight Now · August 6, 2026Quoted
  16. 16NASA expects one lunar launch this year, Moon Base manager saysAerospace America · September 15, 2026Summarized

Refilling in orbit 16

  1. 1NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA’s Human Landing System Program: Progress Toward Artemis III and Beyond (IAC-24.B3.1.11)NASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Lisa Watson-Morgan, Kent Chojnacki, Rene Ortega, Thomas K. Percy, John Crisler · October 2024Text adapted
  3. 3Cryogenic Fluid Management (CFM)NASA Space Technology Mission Directorate · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4NASA to Launch New Refueling Mission, Helping Spacecraft Live Longer and Journey FartherNASA Goddard Space Flight Center · November 20, 2018Text adapted
  5. 5Stay Cool: NASA Tests Innovative Technique for Super Cold Fuel StorageNASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Lee Mohon · July 18, 2025Text adapted
  6. 6Cryogenic Fluid Management fact sheet (FS-2023-078-133-MSFC)NASA Marshall Space Flight Center · 2023Text adapted
  7. 7NASA Artemis Mission Progresses with SpaceX Starship Test FlightNASA · March 14, 2024Text adapted
  8. 8NASA Tech Contributes to Soft Moon Landing, Agency Science UnderwayNASA · February 23, 2024Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Tests New Device for Future In-Space Refueling MissionsNASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Daniel Boyette · June 26, 2026Text adapted
  10. 102020 NASA Tipping Point SelectionsNASA · October 14, 2020Text adapted
  11. 11Robotic Refueling Mission 3NASA Goddard Space Flight Center · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12NASA, Industry Prepare Cryogenic Fuel Technology DemoNASA Marshall Space Flight Center · Daniel Boyette · May 14, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14SpaceX, Blue Origin share new lunar landing profilesFLYING, via Astronomy · Jack Daleo · November 4, 2025Summarized
  15. 15SpaceX launches Starship into orbit for 1st time—largest rocket ever built notches key milestone on dramatic Flight 14 testSpace.com · Mike Wall · September 28, 2026Summarized
  16. 16Returning to the Moon (Ignition presentation)NASA Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate · March 2026Text adapted

Gateway 22

  1. 1Gateway Space Station (reference)NASA · updated July 23, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2A Lunar Orbit That’s Just Right for the International GatewayNASA · Briana R. Zamora · May 16, 2022Text adapted
  3. 3NASA Awards Artemis Contract for Lunar Gateway Power, PropulsionNASA · May 23, 2019 (updated March 7, 2020)Text adapted
  4. 4NASA’s Management of the Gateway Program for Artemis Missions, IG-21-004NASA Office of Inspector General · November 10, 2020Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Awards Contract to Launch Initial Elements for Lunar OutpostNASA · February 9, 2021Text adapted
  6. 6NASA, Northrop Grumman Finalize Moon Outpost Living Quarters ContractNASA · July 9, 2021Text adapted
  7. 7Reconfiguration of NASA GRC’s Vacuum Facility 6 for Testing of Advanced Electric Propulsion System (AEPS) HardwareNASA Technical Reports Server · 2018Figures
  8. 8NASA, United Arab Emirates Announce Artemis Lunar Gateway AirlockNASA · January 7, 2024Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Shares Progress Toward Early Artemis Moon Missions with CrewNASA · January 9, 2024Figures
  10. 10NASA: Assessments of Major Projects, GAO-26-108556U.S. Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11NASA Unveils Initiatives to Achieve America’s National Space PolicyNASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12NASA outlines ambitious $20 billion plan for moon baseSpaceflight Now · March 25, 2026Summarized
  13. 13Trump Megabill Includes Billions for Artemis, ISS, Moving a Space Shuttle to Texas and MoreSpacePolicyOnline · July 3, 2025Summarized
  14. 14Trump FY2027 NASA Budget Supports Moon Missions, But Cuts Everything ElseSpacePolicyOnline · April 3, 2026Summarized
  15. 15America Underway in Space on Nuclear Power (Ignition fact sheet)NASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16Space Reactor-1 Freedom (mission page)NASA · accessed September 30, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17NASA Provides Updates on Moon Base Cargo Landers, Tech DemonstrationsNASA · Ivry Artis · August 4, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18NASA, Northrop Grumman repurpose Gateway elements for Moon Base demo missionsSpaceflight Now · August 6, 2026Summarized
  19. 19ESA Details Next Steps for Agency’s Gateway ContributionsEuropean Spaceflight · June 23, 2026Summarized
  20. 20MDA Space Will ‘Repurpose’ Canadarm3 For Lunar SurfacePayload · August 10, 2026Summarized
  21. 21UAE MBRSC reaffirms role after NASA halts Lunar GatewayGulf News · March 27, 2026Summarized
  22. 22NASA, Canadian Space Agency Formalize Gateway Partnership for Artemis ProgramNASA · December 16, 2020Text adapted

CLPS 19

  1. 1Commercial Lunar Payload Services (reference)NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Commercial Lunar Payload Services (program page)NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3Examining the Commercial Lander Services Powering NASA’s Return to the MoonNASA Office of Inspector General · Raleigh McElvery · May 18, 2026; updated August 13, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4NASA Science, Astrobotic Peregrine Mission One ConcludesNASA · January 19, 2024Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Tech Contributes to Soft Moon Landing, Agency Science UnderwayNASA · February 23, 2024Text adapted
  6. 6NASA, Intuitive Machines Share Images from the Moon, Provide Science UpdatesNASA · February 28, 2024Text adapted
  7. 7NASA’s LRO Images Intuitive Machine’s Odysseus LanderNASA Goddard Space Flight Center · February 26, 2024Text adapted
  8. 8Touchdown! Carrying NASA Science, Firefly’s Blue Ghost Lands on MoonNASA · March 2, 2025Text adapted
  9. 9NASA Science Continues After Firefly’s First Moon Mission ConcludesNASA · March 18, 2025Text adapted
  10. 10NASA Receives Some Data Before Intuitive Machines Ends Lunar MissionNASA · March 7, 2025Text adapted
  11. 11IgnitionNASA · March 24, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Building the Moon Base (Ignition presentation)NASA · Carlos Garcia-Galan · March 2026Figures
  13. 13NASA Provides Update on Moon Base Rovers, Landers, MissionsNASA · May 26, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Provides Updates on Moon Base Cargo Landers, Tech DemonstrationsNASA · Ivry Artis · August 4, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NASA expects one lunar launch this year, Moon Base manager saysAerospace America · September 15, 2026Quoted
  16. 16Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) DeliveriesNASA Science · accessed October 1, 2026Figures
  17. 17CLPS NewsNASA · checked October 1, 2026Figures
  18. 18NASA Awards More Moon Base Science, Previews New OpportunitiesNASA · June 30, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19Commercial Lunar Payload Services 2.0 (CLPS2): acquisition page and milestone scheduleNASA Johnson Space Center Procurement · updated September 22, 2026; checked October 1, 2026Figures

Chapter 6Reading the universe

Hubble, Webb and Roman 28

  1. 1About HubbleNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2The History of HubbleNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3Hubble’s Mirror FlawNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Astronaut Missions to HubbleNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5Operating Hubble with Only One GyroscopeNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6NASA to Change How It Points Hubble Space TelescopeNASA · NASA Hubble Mission Team · June 4, 2024Text adapted
  7. 7Hubble FAQsNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8NASA’s Hubble Seeks Lensed Supernova, Marks 200,000 OrbitsNASA · NASA Hubble Mission Team · September 23, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9On the Shoulders of a Giant (Hubble vs. Webb)NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10About WebbNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11Webb’s OrbitNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12James Webb Space Telescope: Project Meeting Commitments but Current Technical, Cost, and Schedule Challenges Could Affect Continued Progress (GAO-14-72)U.S. Government Accountability Office · January 2014Text adapted
  13. 13James Webb Space Telescope: Integration and Test Challenges Have Delayed Launch and Threaten to Push Costs Over Cap (GAO-18-273)U.S. Government Accountability Office · February 2018Text adapted
  14. 14NASA Completes Webb Telescope Review, Commits to Launch in Early 2021NASA · June 27, 2018Text adapted
  15. 15James Webb Space Telescope: Project Nearing Completion, but Work to Resolve Challenges Continues (GAO-21-406)U.S. Government Accountability Office · May 13, 2021Text adapted
  16. 16Expanding Our View (Hubble vs. Roman)NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17NASA’s Dark Universe-Seeking Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope LaunchesNASA · Jennifer M. Dooren · August 30, 2026Text adapted
  18. 18Fuel Savings Double Potential Lifetime for NASA’s Roman MissionNASA · Ashley Balzer · September 14, 2026Text adapted
  19. 19NASA Activates Roman’s Primary Instrument, Checks Out CoronagraphNASA · Ashley Balzer · September 15, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20NASA Checks Roman Guidance System, Takes First Coronagraph ObservationNASA · Ashley Balzer · September 30, 2026Text adapted
  21. 21NASA’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget Request (summary)NASA · April 2026Figures
  22. 22NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · Updated June 22, 2026Figures
  23. 23Bill Summary: Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Fiscal Year 2026 Appropriations BillU.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations · January 2026Figures
  24. 24You just saved NASA’s budgetThe Planetary Society · Jack Kiraly · January 15, 2026Figures
  25. 25House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized
  26. 26NASA Says Webb’s Excess Fuel Likely to Extend its Lifetime ExpectationsNASA · December 29, 2021Text adapted
  27. 27NASA’s Webb Reveals Dynamic Panorama of Star FormationNASA · NASA Webb Mission Team · September 15, 2026Figures
  28. 28NASA’s Webb Takes Star-Filled Portrait of Pillars of CreationNASA · October 19, 2022 (updated October 21, 2022)Text adapted

Mars 24

  1. 1Mars Science Laboratory: Curiosity RoverNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2NASA’s Management of the Mars Science Laboratory Project (IG-11-019)NASA Office of Inspector General · June 8, 2011Text adapted
  3. 3Curiosity Reaches 1-Kilometer Elevation GainNASA · August 26, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Curiosity Postcard Celebrates Rover’s 5,000th Day on Mars (PIA26700)NASA · September 16, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Study: Non-biologic Processes Don’t Fully Explain Mars OrganicsNASA · Lonnie Shekhtman · February 6, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6Mars 2020: Perseverance RoverNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Mars 2020 Perseverance Launch Press Kit: Quick FactsNASA/JPL · 2020Figures
  8. 8The 33 Sample Tubes Collected by Perseverance (PIA26643)NASA/JPL-Caltech · July 24, 2025Text adapted
  9. 9Installing Perseverance’s Sample Tubes (PIA24305)NASA/JPL-Caltech · December 22, 2020Figures
  10. 10NASA Says Mars Rover Discovered Potential Biosignature Last YearNASA/JPL · September 10, 2025Text adapted
  11. 11After Three Years on Mars, NASA’s Ingenuity Helicopter Mission EndsNASA · Abbey A. Donaldson · January 25, 2024Text adapted
  12. 12NASA Will Inspire World When It Returns Mars Samples to Earth in 2033NASA · July 27, 2022Text adapted
  13. 13NASA Sets Path to Return Mars Samples, Seeks Innovative DesignsNASA · Abbey A. Donaldson · April 15, 2024Text adapted
  14. 14NASA to Explore Two Landing Options for Returning Samples from MarsNASA · Roxana Bardan · January 7, 2025Text adapted
  15. 15Mars Sample ReturnNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16You just saved NASA’s budgetThe Planetary Society · Jack Kiraly · January 15, 2026Summarized
  17. 17Bill Summary: Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Fiscal Year 2026 Appropriations BillU.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations · January 2026Figures
  18. 18NASA’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget Request (summary)NASA · April 2026Figures
  19. 19NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · Updated June 22, 2026Figures
  20. 20The FY 2027 NASA budget requestThe Planetary Society · Casey Dreier · April 23, 2026Summarized
  21. 21NASA Selects Blue Origin as Mars Telecommunications Network ProviderNASA · Jessica Taveau · September 1, 2026Text adapted
  22. 22ESCAPADENASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  23. 23Space Reactor-1 FreedomNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  24. 24House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized

The outer planets 27

  1. 1Voyager Fact SheetNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2VoyagerNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  3. 3The Interstellar MissionNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4NASA Shuts Off Instrument on Voyager 1 to Keep Spacecraft OperatingNASA · April 17, 2026Text adapted
  5. 5NASA Engineers Help Prolong Voyager 2’s Science MissionNASA · August 4, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6What Is a Light-Day?NASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Pale Blue Dot Revisited (PIA23645)NASA/JPL-Caltech · February 12, 2020Figures
  8. 8New HorizonsNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9NASA’s New Horizons Spacecraft Wakes from Hibernation in Good HealthNASA · July 7, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10NASA’s New Horizons Finds Evidence of Recent Liquid on Pluto’s SurfaceNASA · August 5, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11JunoNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12NASA’s Juno Mission Captures Jupiter Moon Thebe (PIA26751)NASA · May 2026Text adapted
  13. 13NASA’s Juno Mission Redefines Size, Shape of JupiterNASA · February 4, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14Europa ClipperNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15Europa Clipper Launch Press Kit: Quick FactsNASA/JPL · September 2024Text adapted
  16. 16Europa Clipper Launch Press Kit: Mission OverviewNASA/JPL · September 2024Text adapted
  17. 17Letter to the Senate Committee on Appropriations on the Europa Clipper launch vehicle mandateNASA Office of Inspector General · August 27, 2019Text adapted
  18. 18NASA Awards Launch Services Contract for Europa Clipper MissionNASA · July 23, 2021Text adapted
  19. 19DragonflyNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  20. 20NASA’s Dragonfly Will Fly Around Titan Looking for Origins, Signs of LifeNASA · June 27, 2019Text adapted
  21. 21NASA’s Dragonfly Rotorcraft Mission to Saturn’s Moon Titan ConfirmedNASA · April 16, 2024Text adapted
  22. 22NASA’s Dragonfly Clears Key Tests as Titan Rotorcraft Takes ShapeNASA · July 9, 2026Text adapted
  23. 23NASA’s Dragonfly Gets Wired Up While Titan Landing Area Is NamedNASA · September 2, 2026Text adapted
  24. 24You just saved NASA’s budgetThe Planetary Society · Jack Kiraly · January 15, 2026Figures
  25. 25NASA’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget Request (summary)NASA · April 2026Figures
  26. 26The FY 2027 NASA budget requestThe Planetary Society · Casey Dreier · April 23, 2026Summarized
  27. 27House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized

The Sun 21

  1. 1Parker Solar ProbeNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2Amazing Achievements From Parker Solar ProbeNASA · April 29, 2022Text adapted
  3. 3Parker Solar Probe and the Birth of the Solar WindNASA · Jessica Evans and Miles Hatfield · 2018Text adapted
  4. 4NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Makes History With Closest Pass to SunNASA · Mara Johnson-Groh · December 27, 2024Text adapted
  5. 5Parker Solar Probe InstrumentsNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Snaps Closest-Ever Images to SunNASA · Mara Johnson-Groh · July 10, 2025Text adapted
  7. 7Parker Solar Probe Makes 28th Close Pass of SunNASA · Desiree Apodaca · June 11, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8After Latest Swing Past Sun, NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Checks InNASA · Desiree Apodaca · September 10, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9NASA, NOAA: Sun Reaches Maximum Phase in 11-Year Solar CycleNASA · Abbey Interrante · October 15, 2024Text adapted
  10. 10How NASA Tracked the Most Intense Solar Storm in DecadesNASA · Mara Johnson-Groh · May 2024Text adapted
  11. 11Geomagnetic StormsNOAA Space Weather Prediction Center · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  12. 12Electric Power TransmissionNOAA Space Weather Prediction Center · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13Satellite DragNOAA Space Weather Prediction Center · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14Space Weather Observations at L1 to Advance Readiness (SOLAR)-1NOAA NESDIS · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NASA’s IMAP Mission Reaches Its DestinationNASA · January 12, 2026Text adapted
  16. 16NASA’s IMAP Begins Primary Science MissionNASA · Mara Johnson-Groh · February 2, 2026Text adapted
  17. 17You just saved NASA’s budgetThe Planetary Society · Jack Kiraly · January 15, 2026Figures
  18. 18NASA’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget Request (summary)NASA · April 2026Figures
  19. 19NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · Updated June 22, 2026Figures
  20. 20The FY 2027 NASA budget requestThe Planetary Society · Casey Dreier · April 23, 2026Summarized
  21. 21House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026 (updated September 3)Summarized

Chapter 7Who builds it, who pays

The builders 18

  1. 1Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  2. 2National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (Unamended)NASA History Office · July 29, 1958Quoted
  3. 3Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis (Monographs in Aerospace History 3)NASA History Office · Roger D. Launius · 1994; reprinted 2004Text adapted
  4. 4Spending by recipient, NASA contracts, fiscal years 2021–2025USAspending.gov (U.S. Department of the Treasury) · retrieved October 1, 2026Figures
  5. 5Artemis PartnersNASA · accessed October 1, 2026Text adapted
  6. 6On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (NASA SP-4203)NASA · Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood · 1977Text adapted
  7. 7The Space Shuttle Decision (NASA SP-4221)NASA · T. A. Heppenheimer · 1999Text adapted
  8. 8NASA’s Management of the Space Launch System Stages Contract (IG-19-001)NASA Office of Inspector General · October 10, 2018Text adapted
  9. 9NASA’s Management of the Artemis Missions (IG-22-003)NASA Office of Inspector General · November 15, 2021Text adapted
  10. 10NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  11. 11Commercial Orbital Transportation Services: A New Era in Spaceflight (NASA SP-2014-617)NASA · Rebecca Hackler · 2014Text adapted
  12. 12NASA’s Commercial Crew Program Faces Schedule Delays, Cost Increases, and Safety ChallengesNASA Office of Inspector General · June 30, 2026Text adapted
  13. 13NASA Awards SpaceX Three Crew Flights to Space StationNASA · Mark A. Garcia · September 18, 2026Text adapted
  14. 14NASA’s Management of the Human Landing System Contracts (IG-26-004)NASA Office of Inspector General · March 10, 2026Text adapted
  15. 15NASA Strengthens Artemis: Adds Mission, Refines Overall ArchitectureNASA · February 27, 2026Summarized
  16. 16Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, vol. 1, ch. VIPresidential Commission (Rogers Commission) · June 6, 1986Text adapted
  17. 17Audit of NASA’s Deep Space Network (IG-23-016)NASA Office of Inspector General · July 12, 2023Figures
  18. 18Blue Origin Moon Lander Completes Testing at NASA Vacuum ChamberNASA · Victoria Segovia · May 4, 2026Figures

NASA’s budget 12

  1. 1NASA Appropriations and Authorizations: At a Glance (R43419)Congressional Research Service · April 29, 2026Figures
  2. 2NASA’s Fiscal Year 2027 Budget RequestNASA · April 3, 2026Figures
  3. 3FY 2027 Budget Request Agency Fact SheetNASA · April 3, 2026Text adapted
  4. 4Historical Tables, Table 4.1: Outlays by Agency, 1962–2031Office of Management and Budget · April 2026Figures
  5. 5Historical Tables, Table 10.1: Gross Domestic Product and Deflators Used in the Historical TablesOffice of Management and Budget · April 2026Figures
  6. 6A Glossary of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process (GAO-05-734SP)Government Accountability Office · September 2005Text adapted
  7. 7NASA: Assessments of Major Projects (GAO-26-108556)Government Accountability Office · July 23, 2026Text adapted
  8. 8Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  9. 9House Clears FY2027 CR, Now to the PresidentSpacePolicyOnline · September 1, 2026Summarized
  10. 10House Appropriators Reject Deep Cuts to NASA in FY2027SpacePolicyOnline · May 13, 2026Summarized
  11. 11The FY 2027 NASA budget requestThe Planetary Society · April 23, 2026Quoted
  12. 12Republican-backed reconciliation bill passes, includes funding for ISS, Artemis programs, Space Shuttle relocationSpaceflight Now · July 5, 2025Summarized

Mission operations 11

  1. 1History of the NetworksNASA Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) · January 2, 2020; updated May 27, 2026Text adapted
  2. 2This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (NASA SP-4201)NASA · Loyd S. Swenson Jr., James M. Grimwood and Charles C. Alexander · 1966Text adapted
  3. 3On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (NASA SP-4203)NASA · Barton C. Hacker and James M. Grimwood · 1977Text adapted
  4. 4Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915–1990 (NASA SP-4406)NASA · Roger E. Bilstein · 1989Text adapted
  5. 5Basics of Space Flight, Chapter 18: Deep Space NetworkNASA Science · July 20, 2023Text adapted
  6. 6Deep Space NetworkNASA · February 27, 2023; updated June 16, 2026Text adapted
  7. 7Audit of NASA’s Deep Space Network (IG-23-016)NASA Office of Inspector General · July 12, 2023Text adapted
  8. 8New Next-Gen Dish Adds Muscle to NASA’s Deep Space NetworkNASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory · August 25, 2026Text adapted
  9. 9Networks Keeping NASA’s Artemis II Mission ConnectedNASA · Katherine Schauer · January 28, 2026Text adapted
  10. 10NASA Welcomes Record-Setting Artemis II Moonfarers Back to EarthNASA · April 10, 2026Figures
  11. 11Gemini Pioneered the Technology Driving Today’s ExplorationNASA Kennedy Space Center · Bob Granath · March 27, 2023Text adapted